The Hebrew Bible contains a particularly puzzling book commonly referred to as “The Song of Songs.” Considered one of the five megillot (scrolls) of the Hebrew Bible, the book is also known as the “Song of Solomon,” “Solomon’s Song of Songs” and “Canticles.” The book contains frankly erotic and romantic imagery, and the poem suggests movement from courtship to consummation. Although the poem is attributed to King Solomon in the traditional title (Song 1:1), the language and style of the work, among other considerations, point to a time after the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 B.C.). Thus, most scholars believe that an unknown poet composed this masterpiece. The structure of “Songs” is difficult to analyze; here it is regarded as a lyric dialogue, with dramatic movement and interest.

Moreover, despite its placement in the Hebrew Bible, “The Song of Songs” has no overtly religious content. Thus, “Songs” is often interpreted as an allegorical representation of the relationship of God and Israel, or for Christians, God and the Church or Christ and the human soul, as husband and wife. Many Jews believe that the author of “Songs” intended it as an allegory of the ideal Israel, and a parable in which the true meaning of mutual love-whether it exist between husband and wife, or God and “the chosen people”-is explored in its powerful (albeit brief) 117 verses. Ashkenazi Jews often recite “Songs” on the Sabbath during the intermediate days of Passover. It is even more popular with Sephardic Jews, who commonly recite the book every Friday night.

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In the twelfth month, which is the month of Adar, on its thirteenth day … on the day that the enemies of the Jews were expected to prevail over them, it was turned about: the Jews prevailed over their adversaries. – Esther 9:1

And they gained relief on the fourteenth, making it a day of feasting and gladness. – Esther 9:17

[Mordecai instructed them] to observe them as days of feasting and gladness, and sending delicacies to one another, and gifts to the poor. – Esther 9:22

Purim is a holiday that commemorates the deliverance of the Jewish people of the ancient Persian Empire from (super evil dictator) Haman’s plot to exterminate them. Purim is celebrated on the 14th day of Adar (usually in March), the day that, according to the Book of Esther, Haman had chosen to kill the Jews (after casting lots to help him decide), and the day that the Jews successfully defended themselves against his vicious attack.

In cities that were walled in the time of Joshua, Purim is celebrated on the 15th of the month, because the book of Esther says that in Shushan (a walled city), deliverance from the massacre was not complete until the next day. The 15th is referred to as Shushan Purim. In leap years, when there are two months of Adar, Purim is celebrated in the second month of Adar, so it is always one month before Passover.

Purim is celebrated by a public reading of the book of Esther. During the public recitation, it is customary to boo, hiss, stamp feet and rattle noisemakers whenever (super evil dictator) Haman’s name is mentioned during the service. There is also mutual gift giving and a celebratory meal, replete with costumes and lots of wine. In sum, Purim is a blast, and many Jews describe it as their favorite holiday.

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In the Sigmund Freud’s last book, Moses and Monotheism (1939), he advances a psychoanalytical interpretation of Moses’ life, which is explored through three essays titled, “Moses an Egyptian,” “If Moses Was an Egyptian,” and “Moses, His People, and Monotheistic Religion.” Freud postulated that Moses was an Egyptian nobleman who adhered to the monotheism of Akhenaten. Following a theory proposed by a contemporary biblical critic, Freud, a committed atheist, believed that Moses was murdered in the wilderness, producing a collective sense of patricidal guilt that has been at the heart of Judaism ever since. “Judaism had been a religion of the father, Christianity became a religion of the son”, he wrote.

Upon first examination the work seems somewhat disordered, and contains repetitions and inconsistencies. The writing appears to reflect the movement of Freud’s thought, his doubts and hesitation, his concern regarding the scientific nature of the information he provides, and his fears concerning the way the text might be received among Viennese Catholics and by the Jewish community.The last essay includes prefatory notes written at different times, one in Vienna before Freud’s departure for Great Britain, the other in London, which partly contradicts the first. Finally, part two of the third essay is preceded by a “Summary” in which he reevaluates much of the information in the first essays.

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Ash Wednesday marks the first day of the Season of Lent in the Western Christian calendar and always occurs forty-six days before Easter (40 days if you don’t count Sundays). Thus, the holiday falls on a different date each year, because it is dictated by the date of Easter (it can fall anywhere between February 4th and March 10th). The traditional purpose of Lent is the preparation of the believer — through prayer, penitence, alms-giving and self-denial-for the death (Good Friday) and resurrection of Jesus celebrated on Easter Sunday.

While Ash Wednesday is most strongly associated with the Roman Catholic Church, Lutherans, Episcopalians and a smattering of other Christian worshippers also observe the holiday. It derives its name from the ritual of placing a cross of ashes on the forehead of adherents as a symbol of penitence. The ashes are made from the burnt palm fronds used in the prior year’s Palm Sunday celebration.

According to the Bible, ashes were used in ancient times to express mourning and guilt for sins and personal shortcomings. In early Christianity, believers who had committed grave sins would perform a kind of public penance on Ash Wednesday, donning hair shirts while their local bishop sprinkled them with ashes made from the palms from the prior year. Then, while the faithful recited the Seven Penitential Psalms (smugly, I’d imagine), the penitents were turned out of the church and could not return until after Easter. When this ritual was gradually widened to include all believers, the hair shirt was abandoned in favor of the practice of abstaining from some sort of pleasurable activity or vice, such as eating chocolate, smoking cigarettes and having sex.

Unsurprisingly, The Roman Catholic Church takes Ash Wednesday very seriously. Thus, Catholics can look forward to a day of fasting, abstaining from meat and feeling even worse about themselves than they already do. The more laid back Anglican Church only really stresses fasting, and some of the really namby pamby denominations that observe the holiday only requires a day of repentance and reflection.

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According to the book of Genesis in the Old Testament, Sodom and Gomorrah were two ancient cities in Palestine that were destroyed by God because of the sins of its inhabitants. The cities are described as being destroyed by brimstone and fire (with an earthquake thrown in for good measure), and have become a symbol of impenitent sin and “sexual deviancy” in both the Christian and Islamic faiths. Thus, the etymology of the English word “sodomy,” a term that is broadly used to describe any non-vaginal sex, but is most often employed in reference to homosexual intercourse. However, Bible scholars are split over whether the primary offense of the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorrah was homosexuality or some other significant sins, with some Rabbinical writings asserting that they were also guilty of rampant stealing, blasphemy and violence.

According to Genesis, God appeared to Abraham to warn him of his intention to destroy the two cities. Abraham expressed his concern about the righteous people in the city who would be unfairly punished for the sins of their fellow citizens. In response, God promised Abraham that he would save the city if He could find ten righteous Sodomites. God then sent two angels to Sodom, who encountered Lot at the gates of the city. Lot kindly offered to house and feed the grateful angels. However, later that night, a mob of shady men surrounded Lot’s house and ordered that he hand over his guests so that they may “know them” (which has been interpreted by some to mean, “have intercourse with them.”). A consummate host, Lot refused to turn over his guests to the mob, but generously offered them his two virgin daughters instead to “do to them whatever you like.”

Despite Lot’s tempting offer, the mob turned him down and attempted to force their way into the house, at which point the angels unceremoniously struck them with blindness. As a token of their gratitude, they briefed Lot about the impending destruction of the city, and ordered him to leave with his wife and daughters. As a final word of caution, Lot and his family were warned not to look behind them while they were fleeing the city. However, Lot’s wife could not resist the temptation to take a peek behind her during their escape from the city (hardly a crime considering the allegedly abominable sins of the Sodomites, but I digress). For this split-second act of disobedience, God turned her into a pillar of salt.

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Iconoclasm is the deliberate destruction of a culture’s religious icons by its own followers, and often precipitates a major shift or break from an established religion. People who support iconoclasm are called “iconoclasts,” a term which has come to describe a person who breaks or disdains orthodoxy or established dogma. Iconoclasm can be distinguished from the destruction of one culture’s images by another group (such as the treatment of South Americans by the Spanish), and does not refer to the demolition of images of a leader after his death or overthrow (for example the toppling of Mussolini’s statues in Italy).

However, the two Byzantine outbreaks of iconoclasm, which occurred during the 8th and 9th centuries, are unique because the use of images was the main issue in dispute (during most iconoclastic periods, invective against “graven images” has usually acted as a symbolic kicking board for other ideological concerns). It is believed that “The First Iconoclasm” (726-787 AD) began after the eruption of an underwater earthquake between the islands of Thera and Therasia, which was interpreted by Emperor Leo III as a sign of God’s anger. This earthquake may have motivated Leo to remove an icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate the surrounded the imperial palace, and eschew religious iconography during the remainder of his reign.

During “The Second Iconoclasm” (814-842 AD), enacted by Constantine V, the Emperor explicitly banned the manufacture of any images of Christ and declared iconoclasm the official imperial policy. Many historians believe that the cultural confrontation with Islam, coupled with fear of and respect for their military might, may have inspired the Byzantine Christians to adopt Islamic precepts regarding the sinfulness of idolatry.

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According to chapters 11-23 in the book of Genesis, Abraham and his wife Sarah are the progenitors of the Hebrew people. Sarah, along with Rebecca, Rachel and Leah are considered the “four Matriarchs” of the Jewish people. When Abram was 75 (God later changed his name to “Abraham”), God instructed him to travel to Canaan with Sarai (who later became “Sarah”).

To the couple’s great dismay, Sarai was barren; a fact that weighed on the couple more heavily in light of God’s promise that Abram and his children would found a great nation. After ten years of unsuccessfully trying to conceive, Sarai gave Abram her maidservand Hagar to take as his concubine.

Hagar soon conceived, and bore a son named Ishmael. However, when Abram was 99 years old, God appeared before Abram and blessed the couple (and symbolically changed Abram’s name to “Abraham” and Sarai’s name to “Sarah”). God promised Abraham that Sarah would conceive a child despite her advanced age (she was 90!) and that he would maintain his covenant with their son, Isaac. True to his promise, their son Isaac was born a year later, beginning the biblical line of God’s promised “great nation” of Israel.

Isaac and Ishmael were initially raised side by side as brothers, but Sarah eventually asked Abraham to send Hagar and Ishmael away for reasons that are still debated by Biblical scholars today. Some claim that Sarah was horrified after discovering that Ishmael was secretly worshipping other gods, some say that it was motivated by Hagar’s uppity attitude and still others claim that Sarah was afraid that Ishmael would receive a greater inheritance as Abraham’s firstborn. In any event, Abraham ordered Hagar and Ishmael to leave his house the next morning (according to Muslim religious texts, Hagar went on to become one of the matriarchs of Islamic). It is alleged that Sarah died peacefully, at the ripe old age of 127.

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